©2005 by Melissa Cartagena

Creative solutions to social change comes with people who have creative life within themselves, a free woman can creatively contribute with radical solutions because she knows life from within.

—Mary Lou Espinosa

Mary Lou Espinosa is a poet who contributed her work to the periodical Regeneración. This quote comes from her poem “ La Madre de Aztlan” and illustrates how many women were actively seeking a solution during the Chicano Movement. Writing has been a creative outlet for generations of people, allowing them to express themselves. The written word has allowed authors the unique ability to find creative, “radical solutions” to the problems that have plagued them.

The Chicano Movement inspired active dedication to la causa through organizations, rallies, music, art and literature. Activism had a significant place in the role of each family member, as he or she would use his or her position to strive for social change. Specifically, Chicanas attempted to make themselves heard, fighting against both racial and gender prejudices. This was not solely for self-expression but a vehicle for what they hoped would allow them to bring change to the future. Chicanas desired to affect and contribute to a cause in which they avidly believed. Chicana activists wanted to reach outside their narrow spheres of influence. Their own ambitions and aspirations would have been extremely limited without such efforts. Chicanas have used literature as a medium of activism to express what they felt, lived, and, essentially, what they wanted to see.

Chicana writing is unique. Its character has been formed through the multiple oppressions that Chicanas have had to endure because of race, gender, and dual oppression. A study of Chicana literature demonstrates that the writings of the Chicanas not only support the spirit of the Chicano Movement, but also address women’s rights. Because Chicanas had to fight on two fronts, they often felt pressure from within La Raza, as Chicanos would assume that these women were putting feminist concerns before la causa. Some Chicanos held that feminism was in opposition to traditional values, and, further, that it resulted in acculturation of Chicanas into Anglo culture—a betrayal that they could not understand or tolerate.1 For example, a survey taken at the 1971 La Conferencia de Mujeres Por La Raza indicated that 72 percent of Chicanas felt discrimination within La Raza, and 28 percent had no opinion. Not surprisingly, none of the women answered definitively that they experienced no discrimination at all.2

It is evident that Chicanas felt allegiance to both the feminist and Chicano Movement, and they had the ability to support both. A poem written by Josephine Madrid entitled Brown noted:

When someone asked me what is beauty, Someone said to me, the sea. Another said, A green tree. I just smiled and said, Look at me! What do you see? A CHICANA!!!! Standing as proud as can be. Still standing, I said, BROWN!!! That is the only true . . . Beauty to me.3

This poem clearly outlines the belief of Chicanas. The direct mention of “A CHICANA” being the explanation of beauty was influenced by feminist empowerment; however, “BROWN” being beautiful is generally a statement of empowerment for all Chicanos. Chicanas were motivated to support both causes because together the two movements spoke to the need for rights for Chicanas. Chicanas were adamant that they had the right to have liberation from both forms of oppression.

Chicana authors sought to make a statement that transcended prevalent stereotypes and allowed others to think of Chicanas differently. However, in order to influence others to see past their assumed roles, Chicanas needed to find answers to questions about identity: the question, “Who am I?” was often at the center of their writing. Mary Lou Espinosa wrote, “Man cannot change his attitude toward woman until the woman perceives her deep psychological self as independent and asserted from man.”4 The singular use of “woman” indicates the need for each individual woman to define who she is in relation to her own experiences and situations. A theme that runs through Chicano literature is the depiction of Chicanas as naive, unfaithful and hypersexual.5 Consequently, men often believed that women had to protect their sexual honor at all costs.

The literary renaissance for Chicano writers began in the 1970s, and Chicanas took full advantage of this development to tell the world—and perhaps sometimes themselves—who they were. Scholars Maria Herrera-Sobek and Helena Maria Viramontes argue, “Chicana authors are deconstructing male-dominated narratives and re-inscribing themselves as subjects and acquiring their own voice. Chicanas are therefore, breaking the silence Chicano hegemony had imposed on them in the name of ethnic unity.”6 In a bold attempt to speak to Chicanas in La Raza, Bernice Rincon adapted a stanza from the epic poem, “I Am Joaquin,” and created a female version that read:

 

La Raza!, Mexicana, Espanola,

Latina, Hispana, Chicana

or whatever I call myself,

I look the same, I feel the same

I cry and sing the same . . .

This poem identifies many of the labels that Chicanas are assigned but that do not define who they are.

Chicana authors have created Chicana protagonists who portray women in ways that differ from the characters offered by Chicano authors. Female characters are symbols of spiritual strength, full of virtue and wisdom. They often are self-sacrificing, and the providers for their families, their husbands, and la causa. Such women are portrayed as both sensitive and the givers of life. These Chicana writings provide an insight to human experience that describes a group of people who have suffered double oppression and marginalization, and yet find ways to nurture their intellect and creativity, and, as a result, continue to flourish. This portrayal of women as active participants, taking action and being assertive, allowed for the illusion that women could “do it all.” Women could fight for the rights of the Chicano Movement along with the rights of Chicanas, because such rights could not be separated.

Apart from focusing on the strength of Chicanas, Chicana writers used the bonds between women as a reoccurring theme. This literature developed strong Chicana characters in their abuelas and madres (grandmothers and mothers) and the wisdom that these women passed along generations. Particular social behavior was taught to younger females through nurturing relationships with their female elders. The relationships in the writings between mothers and children were always very strong, and had dual meanings to both the writers and the readers of this literature. Chicanas defined themselves through these strong, nurturing and lasting relationships. The relationships that extended over generations also promoted a sense of unity among these women. The idea that strength comes through unity, whether among family members or among all of the women of La Raza, was at the center of the fight for equal rights.

Unity among all Chicanas is vital to winning the fight against the multiple discriminations they face. However, some women agreed with men and condemned Chicanas for fighting for their rights because, they argued, this shifted the focus away from la causa and placed individual needs before the needs of the group as a whole. Francisca Flores, editor of the periodical Regeneración, addressed this issue in an editorial titled “ El Mundo Femenil

Mexicana ” (The Mexican World of Woman), as she advocated the promotion of unity:

The issue of equality, freedom and self determination of the Chicana . . . . is not negotiable. Anyone opposing the right of women to organize into their own form of organization has no place in leadership of the movement. FREEDOM IS FOR EVERYONE. Women do not intend to argue or be diverted by engaging in wasteful and useless rhetoric on this subject.....It is hoped that women who disagree with any aspect of the new role of the Chicana will be willing to discuss the issue or difference of opinion within the group.

Gender and racial rights for Chicanas were important in both the Chicano Movement as well as the feminist movement. The conference of 1971 attempted to promote unity among the six hundred Chicanas who attended with the hope that others would be inspired to join the movement. The issues discussed that were directly related to women included marriage, sex, the need for free 24-hour childcare centers in their communities, and the goal of making birth control and abortions free and legal. These issues did not remain within the confines of the conference, but were actively addressed in many Chicana writings as well. Mitral Vidal, for example, wrote a pamphlet titled Chicanas Speak Out, Women: New Voice of La Raza shortly after the conference that focused on the specific issues of Chicanas as part of the Chicano Movement, not as a division within the movement. She also argued that men who stood in the way of women’s rights were suggesting that 51 percent of the population did not have the right to seek liberation.

Pamphlets, along with poetry, prose, periodicals, and newspaper articles, allowed Chicanas to voice their concerns about social and political oppressions, with or without the support of others. These women used such mediums of expression to their greatest capacity, and literary and artistic expression increased during the late 1960s and 1970s. Unfortunately much of Chicana literature was invisible because of the very discrimination that they fought against. However, these women were determined to be heard, and by the 1980s, Chicana literature gained a readership through self-published works and collective publication enterprises headed by Chicana writers. The first organization of Chicana writers as an interest group actually took place in 1973 with El Grito del Norte and an underground Chicano newspaper, Chicanas en la Literatura y el Arte. Regeneración had a Chicana editor, which might have influenced the increase in female contributing authors as the years progressed.

Through writing, Chicanas found another form of activism. One Chicana author used a poem to support her belief that “progress is being made toward social change for all.” The poem read:

La Mujer (the woman) was created from the rib of the man, She was not made from his head to top him, Nor out of his feet, to be trampled upon, But out of his side, to be equal to him, Under his arm, to be protected, and under his heart to be loved.

Poetry, thus, was an acceptable form of literature through which Chicanas could express themselves. However, Chicanas did not necessarily follow what others thought was “acceptable” for them and began exploring new frontiers of creative writing. Berta Orneles, for example, was the first contemporary Chicana novelist, and in 1975, her work explored political themes and had assertive Chicana protagonists who were political activists. During the 1970s and 80s, many Chicana authors took the bold step of using humor in their writing. This action made a statement that indicated Chicanas were comfortable and assured of who they were because most writing positioned women in the role of “victim of the joke,” not as the joke-tellers. Chicana writings also turned to celebration to “sing the freedom and glory of being a woman” in spite of oppression.

Chicana writers used their brilliant minds, strong spirits, and passionate convictions to create great pieces of literature in the 1960s, 70s, and 80s. Patricia Meyer Sparks, a theorist of women writers, says, “Changing social conditions increase or diminish the opportunities for women’s actions and expression, but a special female self-awareness emerges through literature in every period.” This opportunity allowed Chicanas to unite, define both themselves and how others should view them, and establish what they need and deserve. This literature has the power to serve as a tool of activism, affect people around them, and establish a legacy through which future female activists can both survive and thrive.

1. Maria Herrera-Sobek, Beyond Stereotypes: The Critical Analysis of Chicana Literature (Binghamton, N.Y.: Bilingual Press, 1985), 95.
2. Francisca Flores, “Conference of Mexican Women in Houston,” Regeneración 1, no. 10 (1971): 3-4.
3. Josephine Madrid, “Brown,” Regeneración 2, no. 3 (1973): 27.
4. Mary Lou Espinoza, “La Madre de Aztlan,” Regeneración 2, no. 4 (1975): 2.
5. Maria Herrera-Sobek, Beyond Stereotypes: The Critical Analysis of Chicana Literature (Binghamton, N.Y.: Bilingual Press, 1985), 36.
6. Maria Herrera-Sobek and Helena Maria Viramontes, Chicana (W)rites: On Word and Film (Berkeley: Third Woman Press, 1995), 26.
7. Bernice Rincon, “Chicanas on the Move,” Regeneración (1975): 52.
8. Evangelina Vigil, Woman of Her Word: Hispanic Woman Write (Houston: Arte Publico Press, 1987), 7-8.
9. Francisca Flores, “El Mundo Femenil Mexicana,” Regeneración 1, no. 10 (1971): x.
10. Mirta Vidal, Chicanas Speak Out, Woman: New Voice of La Raza (New York: Pathfinder Press Inc., 1971), 3.
11. Tey Diana Rebelledo and Eliana S. Rivero, eds., Infinite Divisions: An Anthology of Chicana Literature (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1993), 21-24.
12. Bernice Rincon, “La Chicana, ‘Her Role in the Past and Her Search for a New Role in the Future,’” Regeneración 2, no. 4 (1975): 39.
13. Maria Herrera-Sobek, Beyond Stereotypes: The Critical Analysis of Chicana Literature (Binghamton, N.Y.: Bilingual Press, 1985), 36.
14. Ibid, 91.
15. Tey Diana Rebelledo and Eliana S. Rivero, Infinite Divisions: An Anthropology of Chicana Literature (Tuscon: University of Arizona Press, 1993), 341.
16. Maria Herrera-Sobek, Beyond Stereotypes: The Critical Analysis of Chicana Literature (Binghamton, N.Y.: Bilingual Press, 1995), 32.

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